Educational Philosophical Theories (chart)

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	Representative Philosophers or Learning Theorists(1)	Student Actions	Teacher Actions	Subject Matter Emphasized	Desired Educational Outcomes
Existentialism (2)	Maxine Greene, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Soren Kierkegaard	authenticity, responsibility; conscious engaged activity	encourage discussion of choice in a moral and political context; promote a thorough grounding in all academic and interpersonal areas	history, mathematics, literature, drama, art, crafts, social sciences, sciences (everything)	conscious decision-makers choosing actions that promote freedom and community
Critical Theory (Marxian Analysis)	Karl Marx, Henry Giroux, Michael Apple, Paulo Freire	analysis of real conditions of everyday life, avoiding/overcoming alienation	from each according to her ability, to each according to her need	history, mathematics, literature, drama, art, crafts, social sciences, sciences (everything)	create a world in which all children are valued equally, who work to transform existing social and material conditions toward more freedom and equality
Behaviorism	B.F. Skinner	respond to stimuli, learn to be self-regulating	present stimuli, manipulate learning environment, create behavioral contracts, offer reinforcement	subject areas that can be directly observed, measured, and evaluated quantitatively	orderly self-regulation
Cognitivism/ Developmentalism	Maria Montessori, A. S. Neill, John Dewey, Waldorf Schools, Reggio Emilia Schools	pursue one's authentic interests in community with others	create learning opportunities, use of manipulatives, joint and individual projects, field trips	real life learning opportunities relevant to the child's interests and needs	life-long self-directed learning, and authentic participation in community life
Social Constructivism	John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Montessori,Reggio Emilia, and Waldorf Schools	select information, construct hypotheses, collaborate with others	Socratic dialogue, facilitate extrapolation, enourage students to discover basic principles, create meaningful contexts for the application of knowledge	history, mathematics, literature, drama, art, crafts, social sciences, sciences (everything)	create an educational community that translates into wider democratic participation
Pragmatism	John Dewey, C. S. Peirce, Richard Rorty			history, mathematics, literature, drama, art, crafts, social sciences, sciences (everything)
Social Meliorism/ Social Reconstructionism	John Dewey, Maria Montesori, Pestazzoli, Marx, Sartre, Freire, Waldorf Schools			history, mathematics, literature, drama, art, crafts, social sciences, sciences (everything)	work to overcome existing social problems; create a better world
Essentialism/ Idealism	Plato

Homemade Facial Scrubs

Cracked Heels Remedies

Dry, cracked feet are never sexy. While this tends to be a summer hazard, it can happen all year-round. To get rid of dry heel syndrome with this 5-step process I cobbled together and use myself from time-to-time.
You can skip parts of this process if you choose. If you continue to wear the foot mask every night for a week, your problems should be solved.
Difficulty: Easy
Time Required: 15 minutes
Here's How:

Soak feet for 5-10 minutes in a warm foot bath made with 1 cup milk and 5 cups warm water.
Create a homemade foot scrub by putting 4 tablespoons salt or sugar in 1/2 cup oil. Baby oil, sweet almond oil or coconut oil or even vegetable oil works well.
Massage the homemade foot scrub in a circular motion into bottoms of feet.
Scrub bottoms of feet with the pumice stone. Rinse and dry feet.
Before you go to bed that night, try this tip from beauty guru Paula Begoun: rub a Stridex pad over dry areas of feet. Stridex, a product found in the acne section of any drugstore, contains 2 percent salicylic acid so it's a great exfoliant for the feet.
Apply moisturizer thickly on feet (do not wash off Stridex). A super-rich moisturizer like cocoa butter, Eucerin (my favorite) or even Vaseline works best.
For even better results, apply a thin layer of gel, an OTC salicylic acid, on your feet along with a dollop of Vaseline.
Pull on socks and keep them on throughout the night for at least 4 hours.
What You Need

1 cup milk
Sugar or salt (either will work)
Baby oil, sweet almond oil or coconut oil
Pumice stone
Stridex, found in the acne section of any drugstore
Thick moisturizer or a salicylic acid cream
Socks

Turmeric Face Mask

Educational Management Theiories

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Scientific Management Theory

(1890-1940)
At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized. Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The United States highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management tended to be the same. Frederick Taylor developed the :scientific management theory” which espoused this careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. Workers were rewarded and punished. This approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities.
Bureaucratic Management Theory

(1930-1950)
Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory with his bureaucratic theory. Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks.
Human Relations Movement

(1930-today)
Eventually, unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects of these theories. More attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. Human Resource departments were added to organizations. The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned. Various new theories were spawned, many based on the behavioral sciences (some had name like theory “X”, “Y” and “Z”).
Traits of Progressive Management Development Programs

With the Human Relations movement, training programs recognized the need to cultivate supervisory skills, e.g., delegating, career development, motivating, coaching, mentoring, etc. Progressive management schools now have students review a wide body of management topics and learn those topics by applying that knowledge in the workplace and reflecting on that application. Learning activities incorporate learners’ real-world activities in the workplaces or their lives. Assignment include reflection and analysis on real-world experience. Learning is enhanced through continuing dialogue and feedback among learners. Very good schools manage to include forms of self-development, too, recognizing that the basis for effective management is effective self-management.
Effective management development programs help students (learners) take a system’s view of their organizations, including review of how major functions effect each other. Assignments include recognizing and addressing effects of one actions on their entire organization.
Contemporary Theories of Management

Contingency Theory

Basically, contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation at hand. Basically, it’s the approach that “it depends.” For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or management style might now conclude that the best style depends on the situation. If one is leading troops in the Persian Gulf, an autocratic style is probably best (of course, many might argue here, too). If one is leading a hospital or university, a more participative and facilitative leadership style is probably best.
Systems Theory

Systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. First, let’s look at “what is a system?” A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. For example, a pile of sand is not a system. If one removes a sand particle, you’ve still got a pile of sand. However, a functioning car is a system. Remove the carburetor and you’ve no longer got a working car. A system can be looked at as having inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes. Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the systems.
Let’s look at an organization. Inputs would include resources such as raw materials, money, technologies and people. These inputs go through a process where they’re planned, organized, motivated and controlled, ultimately to meet the organization’s goals. Outputs would be products or services to a market. Outcomes would be, e.g., enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients, productivity. Feedback would be information from human resources carrying out the process, customers/clients using the products, etc. Feedback also comes from the larger environment of the organization, e.g., influences from government, society, economics, and technologies. This overall system framework applies to any system, including subsystems (departments, programs, etc.) in the overall organization.
Systems theory may seem quite basic. Yet, decades of management training and practices in the workplace have not followed this theory. Only recently, with tremendous changes facing organizations and how they operate, have educators and managers come to face this new way of looking at things. This interpretation has brought about a significant change (or paradigm shift) in the way management studies and approaches organizations.
The effect of systems theory in management is that writers, educators, consultants, etc. are helping managers to look at the organization from a broader perspective. Systems theory has brought a new perspective for managers to interpret patterns and events in the workplace. They recognize the various parts of the organization, and, in particular, the interrelations of the parts, e.g., the coordination of central administration with its programs, engineering with manufacturing, supervisors with workers, etc. This is a major development. In the past, managers typically took one part and focused on that. Then they moved all attention to another part. The problem was that an organization could, e.g., have a wonderful central administration and wonderful set of teachers, but the departments didn’t synchronize at all. See the category Systems Thinking
Chaos Theory
As chaotic and random as world events seem today, they seem as chaotic in organizations, too. Yet for decades, managers have acted on the basis that organizational events can always be controlled. A new theory (or some say “science”), chaos theory, recognizes that events indeed are rarely controlled. Many chaos theorists (as do systems theorists) refer to biological systems when explaining their theory. They suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they do so, these systems become more volatile (or susceptible to cataclysmic events) and must expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability. This trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart entirely. Sound familiar? This trend is what many see as the trend in life, in organizations and the world in general.

Fayol Administrative Management Theory

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The first expert of Administrative Management Theory was Henri Fayol (1841-1925). Fayol is called the "Father of Modern Management". Henri Fayol was a French industrialist and a management consultant. He started the functional approach to management.
The other management experts who contributed to the Administrative Management schools are Mary Parker Follett, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, James Mooney, Alan Reiley, Oliver Sheldon, Ernest Dale, etc.

Henri Fayol in his titled "Industrial and General Administration" published in 1916, gave following 14 principles of management :-
Division of Work,
Discipline,
Authority and responsibility,
Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest,
Remuneration,
Centralisation,
Order,
Equity,
Initiative,
Esprit De Corps,
Stability of Tenure,
Unity of Direction,
Scalar Chain, and
Unity of Command.

Theories of intelligence tests

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Theories of cognitive abilities
Binet
Develops with age, similar to physical ability
Intelligence expressed in performance of complex acts
Developed Binet-Simon scale to differentiate between "would not" and "could not" learners
Only interested in individual's performance (shunned idea of IQ)
Wilhelm Stern (1911) coined "intelligence quotient" as comparison measure
Spearman
Idea of single, global mental ability - "general intelligence"
Noted cognitive abilities always positively correlated with academic achievement
Thurstone
Claimed there were 12 primary mental abilities
General intelligence responsible for correlation between factors
Jensen
Idea of intelligence based upon reaction time required to perform tasks of varying complexity
Negative correlation between performance and task complexity
Problem: Those who process faster will have quicker reaction
Suggested positive correlation between processing and general intelligence
Wechsler
Adapted military Alpha and Beta tests for individual use
Alpha test yielded verbal intelligence
Beta test yielded performance intelligence
Combined was full-scale intelligence, roughly equal to general intelligence
Note: Primarily a clinical theory regarding use of test scores, not a theory of intelligence, per se
Cattell - Horn
Horn/Cattell statement (1966) identified 2 types
“Fluid intelligence” Gf - problem-solving and information-processing ability
“Crystallized intelligence” Gc developed by applying fluid intelligence to life experiences
Have now expanded to 9 abilities
Gf - fluid intelligence - ability to reason in novel situations
Gc - crystallized intelligence - breadth and depth of general knowledge
Gq - Quantitative ability - ability to comprehend and manipulate numerical symbols and concepts
Gv - visualization processing - ability to see spatial relationships and patterns
Ga - auditory processing - ability to discriminate sounds and detect sound patterns and relationships
Gs - processing speed - ability to reach quick correct decisions and maintain attention
Gsm - short-term memory - ability to hold and use a block of information over a short time span
Glr - long-term retrieval - ability to transfer material to permanent storage and retrieve it later
CDS - correct decision speed - ability to reach correct judgments quickly
Carrol
Identified 3 strata
1st level - broad cognitive ability, general intelligence (Thurstone)
2nd level - small number of general factors (Cattell-Horn)
3rd level - large number of specific factors relating to performance on test-specific factors
Sternberg
Called triarchic because composed of 3 subtheories
Contextual theory - different behaviors considered indicative of intelligence in different environments “street smarts”
Experiential theory - applying knowledge and skills to new problems
Componential theory - involves performance, knowledge-acquisition, and managerial components of problem solving and information processing
Das-Naglieri
PASS theory involving 4 basic processes
Planning - managing the problem-solving process
Attention - ability to focus attention on problem to be addressed
Simultaneous processing - ability to process complex pieces of information simultaneously
Successive processing - ability to order elements of processing when necessary
Labels associated with intelligence test scores
Mental retardation (not P.C.) mentally challenged - original purpose of intelligence tests
Gifted and talented
Learning disabled (Learning challenged)
Goddard promoted the use of intelligence tests to eliminate low functioning individuals from U.S. society, including immigrants
Correlates with intelligence
Gender
Family size - negative correlation
Birth order
Occupation
Geography
Climate
Social class
Rosenthal effect
Individual general abilities tests
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: 4th edition
Wechsler scales
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) (American Guidance Services, 1983)
Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) (American Guidance Services, 1993)
Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WJ-R)
Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (DN-CAS)
Advantages of individual abilities tests
Provide aspects of clinical interview
Individually administered
Require considerable training, skill, and experience
Opportunity to observe and judge variety of behaviors
Opportunity to observe and judge aspects of individual's personality
Opportunity to explore reasons for differences in factors within any given test
Utility
Individual diagnosis
Verify or negate group intelligence test results
Group general ability tests
Test of Cognitive Skills by California Test Bureau (CTB) and McGraw Hill (1993)
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test by Psychological Corporation (1996)
School and College Ability Tests by Educational Testing Service (ETS) and CTB/McGraw Hill
Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) (Thorndike & Hagen, 1993) - Riverside
Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Ability (Lambe, Nelson, & French, 1973) - Riverside
Kuhlmann-Anderson Test (Scholastic Testing Service, 1982)
Shipley Institute of Living Scale (Zachery, 1986) - Western Psychological Services
Wonderlic Personnel Test (Wonderlic, 1983) - Author
Multidimensional Aptitiude Battery (Jackson, 1984) - Research Psychologists
Advantages
Cost-effective
Require simpler materials
Usually offer more normative information
Utility
Educational institutions
Industry
Research
Military
Tests of multiple abilities
Differential Aptitude Test Battery (DAT)
General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) - Currently unavailable

Curriculum Notes

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Elements/Components of the Curriculum
The nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized may comprise which we call a curriculum design.

Component 1: Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
Aims: Elementary, Secondary, and Tertiary
Goals: School Vision and Mission
Objectives: educational objectives
Domains:
1. Cognitive – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation
2. Affective – receiving, responding, valuing, organization, characterization
3. psychomotor – perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, origination

Component 2: Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
Information to be learned in school, another term for knowledge ( a compendium of facts, concepts, generalization, principles, theories.

1. Subject-centered view of curriculum: The Fund of human knowledge represents the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries, due to man’s exploration of his world
2. Learner-centered view of curriculum: Relates knowledge to the individual’s personal and social world and how he or she defines reality.
Gerome Bruner: “Knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”

Criteria used in selection of subject matter for the curriculum:
1. self-sufficiency – “less teaching effort and educational resources, less learner’s effort but more results and effective learning outcomes – most economical manner (Scheffler, 1970)

2. significance – contribute to basic ideas to achieve overall aim of curriculum, develop learning skills

3. validity – meaningful to the learner based on maturity, prior experience, educational and social value

4. utility – usefulness of the content either for the present or the future
5. learnability – within the range of the experience of the learners

6. feasibility – can be learned within the tile allowed, resources available, expertise of the teacher, nature of learner

Principles to follow in organizing the learning contents (Palma, 1992)

1. BALANCE . Content curriculum should be fairly distributed in depth and breath of the particular learning are or discipline. This will ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or less crowded.

2. ARTICULATION. Each level of subject matter should be smoothly connected to the next, glaring gaps or wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided.

3. SEQUENCE. This is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.

The horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning will be elated to one another. This is INTEGRATION.

Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, attitudes or values so that these will be used in daily living. The constant repetition, review and reinforcement of learning is what is referred to as CONTINUITY.

Component 3 – Curriculum Experience
Instructional strategies and methods will link to curriculum experiences, the core and heart of the curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the content in order to produce an outcome.
Teaching strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Among these are time-tested methods, inquiry approaches, constructivist and other emerging strategies that complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational activities like field trips, conducting experiments, interacting with computer programs and other experiential learning will also form par of the repertoire of teaching.

Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guide for the selection and use, Here are some of them:

1. teaching methods are means to achieve the end
2. there is no single best teaching method
3. teaching methods should stimulate the learner’s desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual
4. in the choice of teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be considered
5. every method should lead to the development of the learning outcome in three domains
6. flexibility should be a consideration in the use of teaching methods

Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation
To be effective, all curricula must have an element of evaluation. Curriculum evaluation refer to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, and product of the curriculum. Several methods of evaluation came up. The most widely used is Stufflebeam's CIPP Model. The process in CIPP model is continuous and very important to curriculum managers.

CIPP Model – Context (environment of curriculum), Input (ingredients of curriculum), Process (ways and means of implementing), Product accomplishment of goals)- process is continuous.

Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduced. These are the steps:

1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be subject area, the grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify objectives of evaluation.

2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation.

3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and retrieving data for interpretation.

4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized.

5. Report the information. The report of evaluation should be reported to specific audiences. It can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or informally through round table discussion and conversations.

6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modifications and adjustments to be made. 
Major Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum:

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in school.I helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be used. In decision-making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision-making.

The following four educational philosophies relate to curriculum:

1. Perennialism. The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects, literary analysis and considers curriculum as constant.

2. Essentialism. The essential skills of the 3 R's and essential subjects of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language is the focus of the curriculum.

3. Progressivism. The curriculum is focused on students' interest, human problems and affairs. The subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive.

4. Reconstructionism. The focus of the curriculum is on present and future trends and issues of national and international interests.

Educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school heads, evaluator anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.

(Activity: Compare the four Philosophies of Education based on the aim of education, role of education and curriculum trends. How does a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum?

Historical Foundations of Curriculum.
Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit's book."The Curriculum"

Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back to the glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system.

The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on curriculum:

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on students' need.

2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - considered curriculum also as a science which is based on students' need, and the teachers plan the activities.

3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful activities which are child-centered.

4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the teacher plans the lesson in advance.

5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner's interests.

6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. based on students' need and interests.

The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum.

(Question: What are the implications of ever-changing curriculum top teachers?)

Psychological Foundations
Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process and some of the some of questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations.

The following are the three major groups f learning theories:

1. Behaviorists Psychology - consider that learning should be organized in order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter, and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task.

(Activity: Discuss the contributions of Edward L. Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov and Robert Gagne to the present views on curriculum)

2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals process information and how the monitor and manage thinking. For the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter where teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, etc.

(Activity: Discuss the contributions of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Howard Gardner, Felder and Silverman and Daniel Goleman to curriculum development.

3. Humanistic Psychology - concerned with how learners can develop their human potential. Based on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculum is concerned with the process not the products, personal needs not subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations.

(Activity: Give the contributions of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to the present field of curriculum development.

4. Social Foundations of Education.
Schools exists within the social context.Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula.

The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At the same time, society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools.
Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools
Allan Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools:

1. recommended curriculum - proposed by scholars and professional organizations

2. written curriculum - appears in school, district, division or country documents

3. taught curriculum - what teachers implement or deliver in the classroom and schools

4. supported curriculum - resources-textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum

5. assessed curriculum - that which is tested and evaluated

6. learned curriculum - what the students actually learn and what is measured

7. hidden curriculum - the unintended curriculum
Models of Curriculum Development
Ralph Tyler's Model/Rationale
Ralph Tyler considered four considerations in curriculum development:
1. purposes of the school
2. educational experiences related to the purposes
3. organization of the experiences
4. evaluation of the experiences

Hilda Taba's Linear Model
Hilda Taba believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the "grassroots approach" where teachers could have a major input. She presented seven major steps:
1. diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society
2. formulation of learning objectives
3. selection of learning content
4. organization of learning content
5. selection of learning experiences
6. organization of learning activities
7. determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

Perenialisme more emphasis on immortality, ideals, truth and beauty of cultural heritage and social impact of certain. Knowledge is consideredmore important and less attention to their daily activities. b.

Essensialisme stressed the importance of cultural inheritance and gift of knowledge and skills so that learners can become a useful member of society.c.

Existentialism emphasizes the individual as a source of knowledge aboutlife and meaning. To memahamu life one must understand himself.d.

Progresivisme emphasizes the importance of serving the individualdifferences, learner-centered, experiential learning and process variations.Progresivisme a basis for studying the development of active learners