Educational Psychology notes

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Theories about human learning can be grouped into four broad "perspectives". These are
Behaviorism - focus on observable behavior
Cognitive - learning as purely a mental/ neurological process
Humanistic - emotions and affect play a role in learning
Social - humans learn best in group activities

The development of these theories over many decades is a fascinating story. Some theories developed as a negative reaction to earlier ones. Others built upon foundational theories, looking at specific contexts for learning, or taking them to a more sophisticated level.

There is also information here about general theories of learning, memory, and instructional methodology.

Read brief descriptions of these four general perspectives here:
Learning Theories: Four Perspectives
Within each "perspective" listed below, there may be more than one cluster of theories. Click on the name of the theorist to go to the page with biographical information and a description of the key elements of his/her theory.

1. Behaviorist Perspective
Classical Conditioning: Stimulus/Response
Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Classical Conditioning Theory

Behaviorism: Stimulus, Response, Reinforcement
John B. Watson 1878-1958 Behaviorism
Edward L. Thorndike 1874-1949 Connectivism
Edwin Guthrie 1886-1959 Contiguity Theory
B. F. Skinner 1904-1990 Operant Conditioning
William Kaye Estes 1919 - Stimulus Sampling Theory

Neo-behaviorism: Stimulus-Response; Intervening Internal Variables; Purposive Behavior
Edward C. Tolman 1886-1959 Sign Theory & Latent Learning
Clark Hull 1884-1952 Drive Reduction Theory
Keneth W. Spence 1907-1967 Discrimination Learning

2. Cognitive Perspective: Learning as a Mental Process
Gestalt Learning Theory: Perception, Decision making, Attention, Memory, & Problem Solving
Max Wertheimer 1880 -1943 Gestalt Learning Theory Kurt Lewin 1890 - 1947 Field Theoretical Approach Wolfgang Kohler 1887 - 1967 Insight Learning Kurt Koffka 1887 - 1941 Gestalt Theory Leon Festinger 1919 - 1989 Cognitive Dissonance
Information Processing and Computer Models
D.O. Hebb 1904 - 1985 Neurophysiologic Theory George A Miller 1920 - Information Processing Theory Allen Newell 1927 - 1992 General Problem Solver Craik & Lockhart Levels of Processing Allan Paivio 1941 - Dual Coding Theory David E. Rumelhart 1942 - Interactive Activation with Competition
Constructivism: Knowledge is Constructed; the Learner is an Active Creator
David Ausubel 1918 - 2008 Subsumption Theory Jerome Bruner 1915 - Constructivism Jean Piaget 1896 - 1990 Genetic Epistemology Jean Lave Situated Cognition Chris Argyris 1923 - Double Loop Learning Rand J. Spiro Cognitive Flexibility David Kolb Learning Styles John Flavell Metacognition Roger Schank Script Theory
Psychoanalytic: The role of the Unconscious Mind in Learning
Sigmund Freud 1856-1939 Psychoanalytic Theory of Learning
3. Humanistic Perspective: Emotions and Affect Play a Role in Learning
Abraham Maslow 1908-1970 Humanistic Theory of Learning
Carl Rogers 1902-1987 Experiential Learning
Jack Mezirow Transformational Learning

4. Social Learning Perspective: Learning as a group process
Lev Vygotsky 1896 - 1935 Social Constructivism Albert Bandura 1925 - Observational Learning John Seely Brown Cognitive Apprenticeship

5. General Theories of Memory & Intelligence J. R. Anderson ACT* J.P. Guilford Structure of Intellect Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences Robert Sternberg Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

6. Instructional Theories John Bransford Anchored Instrution Lee Joseph Cronbach 1916 - 2001 Aptitude Treatment Interaction K.P. Cross CAL- Characteristics of Adult Learners Robert Gagne 1916-2002 Conditions of Learning Malcolm Knowles Andragogy Lev Landa Algo-Heuristic Mager Criterion-Referenced-Instruction Merrill Component Display Theory Reigeluth Elaboration Theory




Today it seems that lesson plans must be based on objectives and have measurable assessment methods to show that those objectives are being met instantly. This is a narrow approach to educational psychology, which is the what and why of learning, motivation, memory and forgetting, and relegates other claims and arguments about what constitutes successful learning. Other approaches were developed precisely to counter pseudo-scientific approaches to education.
Behaviourism is about measuring information in and information out. We may as well be a machine and in any case it does not matter really what actually happens in the brain. Consciousness does not come into it. Either there is a mind but we cannot know it, or it is a fiction: the result and method is the same anyway. It is about stimulation and response, repetition, reinforcement and conditioning. It is about a systematic conveyor belt of application of successful strategies of learning according to repeated outcomes like a scientific experiment produces repeated outcomes. Each learning is as a single event: one thing in, one thing out, each at a time. Purposive and neo-behaviourism allows that humans respond to a purpose, or act as if they have a purpose, and so the input output strategies also manipulate the purpose that individuals have or think they have. In a teaching situation it means getting the right new information in as successfully as possible, measured by outcomes and maintaining these outputs. Reinforcement should be immediate. Associated with Pavlov, Guthrie, Hull, Skinner and Medawar.
Criticism is that both reduce the human individual to inputs and outputs. Neo-behaviourism is only a slight modification of Pavlov's slavering dogs and humans are associated too closely with mechanistic views of animals. They are about conditioning via stimulus for the correct ouput and have a place for punishment. This is highly authoritarian. Teaching thinking is itself reduced to teaching another subject.
Gestalt psychology is more holisitic. It is not about doing, the mechanics of behaviourism and neo-behaviourism, but perception of a situation. How do parts become wholes? In a teaching situation it seeks a unity in the whole information area, particularly in the minds of students; and it is environmental and focusses on the personalities of students. Facts are related to one another. Thinking itself has to be organised to relate facts together. Thinking happens when a problem and a goal cannot be matched (compare with behaviourists) and so organsiation of thinking needs to be adapted and developed to reach the goal. The flash of insight is also important, though it may follow a lot of step by step rethinking bringing together all kinds of mosaic like considerations (not simply linear fashion). So knowledge can involve leaps. Motivation is important in creating success. Once new patterns of thinking are established, knowledge can be retained (eg "I am a social scientist, it is how I think"). Associated with Koffka, Köhler and Wertheimer (the whole has proprties beyond the sum of its parts).
Cognitive pyschology is about understanding the internal processes of learning, understanding, motivation and retention. The mind is broad and complex into which event-responses are absorbed. The brain and mind is the centre of an organism changing and being changed by the environment in a reciprocal manner. It's one's own experinces which leads to crucial changes. The individual is certainly purposeful, but interacting and reacting. Readjusting means growth and we adjust best in adolescence when minds are plastic and attitudes flexible. For teaching, it is where fresh insights and new meanings modify previous important insights in a democratic setting. Having an existing understanding is crucial to receive new understanding. All the insights develop the individual as a whole and there are layers of knowledge - knowing about and knowing to do ("cognitive", "psychomotor"). Students create meaning from what the teaching means to them. This can happen in leaps and starts and developing language is crucial. The culture of society is taught as meaningful to the student, and the student adopts culture through which the whole human being develops. Associated with Dewey, Bruner (functionalism) and Ausubel, also Vygotsky.
Criticism is regarding how measurement can take place of what is happening - the inputs should still lead to teacher intended outputs. Also it can enlarge the students' contributions in learning from life and reduce the adaptive role of the teacher.
Humanistic psychology is where students make conscious choices. Learning and teaching focusses on relationships and values. Experience is already valid. Intrinsic learning (Maslow) rejects drilling and repetition of what are to the student arbitrary meanings and responses. Learning is instead about wisdom and broad life skills. Humans have needs, from the simplest through to the most fulfilling. For teaching, it means facilitating because education relates to counselling, guiding and helping to develop potential and insight. Education should be experiential in order to be successful and fulfilling. The inner being becomes harmonious with the external world. Education is spiritual and people are essentially good (and eager to learn). Knowledge can be beautiful (and people respond to beauty). So the teacher should build a learning atmosphere, clarify the purposes of learning, rely on students' motivations, provide resources, accept content and feelings of students, learn along with the students, share feelings and accept their limitations.
Criticism is that motivation isn't so forthcoming (people are not so intrinsically good) and learning can end up being very limited. It is also anti-objective regarding knowledge.
Reflections on teaching today
In a current situation of government determined funding, league tables, particular educational priorities (tied to meeting the needs of the economy) and the influence of the schools' National Curriculum throughout the rest of education, the whole thrust of teaching has become ever more behaviourist. As a logical chain is pursued right down to the lesson plan and assessments (often instant repeats in student output of the inputted teaching), education is being reduced to targets achieved. It is an authoritarian system, implying a highly objective philosophy of knowledge. The insights of other theories of learning become also rans for environmental and comfort inducing purposes (removing blockages to communication). The City and Guilds 730 course simply reflects this bias and fails to criticise itself (and so I am doing this here). It is probably inappropriate to a great deal of reflective adult education. Learning is not simply what the student repeats back or hands in, but develops over time, and makes sense in the light of experience before and later, even if there is an importance in transmitting culture to students (in a way that preserves their freedom to dissent and remake culture). I like to pursue the relationship between education and liberal views of religion, and human development, whilst accepting that knowledge is the principal tool of self-liberation.